Discussion Papers

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Determinants of household water and energy access and their impacts on food security and health outcomes in Sudan

2025Kirui, Oliver K.; Ahmed, Mosab; Raouf, Mariam; Abushama, Hala; Siddig, Khalid

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Determinants of household water and energy access and their impacts on food security and health outcomes in Sudan

This study investigates the determinants of access to safe water and reliable energy for households in Sudan using nationally representative data from a recent labor market survey. The results show that urbanization, education, and wealth significantly enhance the access households have to these essential services, while rural areas and less developed regions, particularly in the Darfur and Kordofan regions, face substantial challenges. Access to reliable energy correlates with better food security and health outcomes within households, and improved access to safe water significantly enhances the health of household members. Policy recommendations supported by these research results include targeted rural infrastructure investments, educational improvements, and regional interventions to address disparities in household access to safe water and reliable energy across Sudan.

Year published

2025

Authors

Kirui, Oliver K.; Ahmed, Mosab; Raouf, Mariam; Abushama, Hala; Siddig, Khalid

Citation

Kirui, Oliver K.; Ahmed, Mosab; Raouf, Mariam; Abushama, Hala; and Siddig, Khalid. 2025. Determinants of household water and energy access and their impacts on food security and health outcomes in Sudan. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2338. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/174711

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Northern Africa; Energy Policies; Food Security; Health; Households; Socioeconomics; Water; Water Policies

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Project

NEXUS Gains

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Guilty pleasures: Expenditure elasticities of ultra-processed foods and paid meals in India

2025Gupta, Manavi; Kishore, Avinash

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Guilty pleasures: Expenditure elasticities of ultra-processed foods and paid meals in India

The rising consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) and paid food away from home (FAFH) is a growing concern for developing countries like India, which face the double burden of persistent malnutrition and increasing obesity. This paper examines the trends and drivers of UPF and paid meal consumption in rural and urban India from 2014 to 2019. Using high-frequency household consumption survey data, we estimate the expenditure elasticity of these food categories. Our results show a significant increase in the consumption of UPFs and paid meals over the study period. The expenditure elasticity of both UPF and FAFH exceeds 1 on average, indicating that they are highly responsive to income growth. Notably, poorer and urban households display higher elasticities compared to wealthier and rural households. Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition reveals that rising incomes and evolving dietary preferences contribute to the increase in UPF and paid meal consumption. These findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to promote healthier food choices, especially among lower-income groups, as India's economy continues to grow.

Year published

2025

Authors

Gupta, Manavi; Kishore, Avinash

Citation

Gupta, Manavi; and Kishore, Avinash. 2025. Guilty pleasures: Expenditure elasticities of ultra-processed foods and paid meals in India. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2330. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/173891

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Northern Africa; Agricultural Transformation; Agrifood Systems; Military Operations; Politics; Value Chains

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Project

Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Under the gun: Military and paramilitary actors in Sudan’s agri-food system

2025Resnick, Danielle; Abushama, Hala; Ahmed, Mosab O. M.; Kirui, Oliver K.; Siddig, Khalid

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Under the gun: Military and paramilitary actors in Sudan’s agri-food system

Armed actors, including militaries and paramilitaries, are heavily entrenched in the agrifood systems of several low- and middle-income countries, often resulting in negative implications for both agricultural transformation and democratic transitions. However, the role of armed actors is overlooked in the scholarship on the governance of agricultural value chains. To address this gap, this paper focuses on the role of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan's agrifood system. Through over 50 semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, the paper traces how the SAF and RSF initially gained their foothold in the agrifood system and how they interact with each other, and the private sector across diverse value chains. We argue that these actors decide to pursue investments in certain value chains depending on the extent to which the private sector is already involved and the degree of technical complexity required to attain more profitable product upgrading. Based on these considerations, we uncover four strategies used by SAF and RSF in different value chains: exclusive capture and rent extraction, competition through biased licensing and quota allocations, acquiescence to existing private competitors when value-addition is too complex, and innovation when potential is high and the private sector is absent. We show how these strategies manifest across value chains as diverse as livestock, wheat, gum Arabic, and horticulture, with secondary applications to other commodities. Given that economic competition between SAF and RSF was a major factor in the outbreak of the 2023 armed conflict, identifying how these strategies emerged and manifested not only contributes to the literature on business-state relations but also expands insights about the political economy antecedents of large-scale conflict.

Year published

2025

Authors

Resnick, Danielle; Abushama, Hala; Ahmed, Mosab O. M.; Kirui, Oliver K.; Siddig, Khalid

Citation

Resnick, Danielle; Abushama, Hala; Ahmed, Mosab; Kirui, Oliver Kiptoo; and Siddig, Khalid. 2025. Under the gun: Military and paramilitary actors in Sudan’s agri-food system. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2328. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/173517

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Northern Africa; Agricultural Transformation; Food Systems; Military Operations; Political Aspects; Value Chains

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

The architecture of the Sudanese agricultural sector and its contribution to the economy between 1990 and 2021

2023Alhelo, Alzaki; Siddig, Khalid; Kirui, Oliver K.

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The architecture of the Sudanese agricultural sector and its contribution to the economy between 1990 and 2021

The paper reviews the performance of the Sudanese agricultural sector over the last three decades (1990 through 2021) and examines the drivers of that performance. Key findings show that the sector’s contribution to gross domestic product was greater during the 1990–1999 period than during the other two decades; agricultural productivity as well was higher in that decade than in the subsequent two decades. The sector has remained a major source of employment and livelihood. During the last decade reviewed (2010–2021), the sector regained its leading position as a generator of foreign currency. Public investment in agriculture and government spending allocated to the sector were lower than in other countries in the region. Political elites have generally lacked commitment to development plans in the sector. Political developments in Sudan have disrupted more recent efforts to revitalize the sector. Climate change, as manifested in rising temperature, declining rainfall, and drought, is a substantial determinant currently affecting the sector. The paper discusses some broad recommendations for improving the performance of the Sudanese agricultural sector.

Year published

2023

Authors

Alhelo, Alzaki; Siddig, Khalid; Kirui, Oliver K.

Citation

Alhelo, Alzaki; Siddig, Khalid; and Kirui, Oliver K. 2023. The architecture of the Sudanese agricultural sector and its contribution to the economy between 1990 and 2021. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2191. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136725.

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Africa; Northern Africa; Agricultural Sector; Gross National Product; Agricultural Productivity; Employment; Livelihoods; Public Investment; Government Spending; Development; Political Aspects; Climate Change

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Links

https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.136725 Source record

Project

NEXUS Gains

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Determinants of resilience for food and nutrition security in South Sudan

2022Ulimwengu, John M.; Thomas, Timothy S.; Marivoet, Wim; Benin, Samuel

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Determinants of resilience for food and nutrition security in South Sudan

The paper analyzes the determinants of long-term individual and community resilience for food and nutrition security in South Sudan using data from multiple sources including key informant interviews, household and community surveys, and georeferenced secondary data on climate, agricultural production, irrigation, and market access. Major agricultural development constraints as well as incidence of and responses to shocks and conflict are described. Climate-crop modeling and simulation methods are used to evaluate the constraints and to identify crop investment options. Then, a spatial typology of food and nutrition security is used to evaluate the constraints along the production-to-nutrition pathway to identify interventions that target different segments of the chain and options for improving agriculture and broader development outcomes. These are classified into production, access, and utilization efficiencies, and whether the underlying constraints are structural (i.e., level of efficiency remains the same over time) or stochastic (i.e., level of efficiency changes over time). The analysis is focused on about a dozen selected counties. The results show that development challenges are being compounded by climate change, with significant increases in the mean annual rainfall and daily maximum temperature for the warmest month. Between 1975 and 2016 for example, the mean annual rainfall in the selected counties increased by 40-111 mm/year, with a rise in the intensity of 0.2-1.3 mm per event. The daily maximum temperature for the warmest month increased by 2.0-3.2°C. If these trends (especially for temperature) continue to 2050, crop yields are projected to decline in the selected counties on average by 12-23% for sorghum, 9-18% for maize, 19-30% for groundnuts, and 16-24% for cassava. In general, there is an inverse-U-shaped the relationship between temperature and yields. While the peak of the inverse U varies by crop, time of the growing season, and other factors, crops in South Sudan are typically on the downward sloping side of the inverse U implying that increases in temperature will decrease yields (and at an increasing rate). Results of a spatial typology show that a majority (78%) of the selected counties are classified as having medium production efficiency and 22% as low production efficiency, none with high production efficiency. With respect to access to nutritious food, 55%, 29%, and 17% of the counties are classified as low, medium, and high access efficiency, respectively. And regarding the conversion of food access into nutritional status, 37%, 26%, and 37% are classified as low, medium, and high utilization efficiency, respectively. Whereas production efficiency mostly remains constant over time, (with only 24% of the counties recording substantial changes in efficiency level), access and utilization efficiency appear more volatile (with substantial changes observed in 52% of the counties). These results suggest that the access segment of the production-to-nutrition value chain is the most constraining, followed by the utilization segment. The differences in the results across counties reflect differences in development constraints across the country, which are also described. Implications of the results for building long-term individual and community resilience are discussed, in addition to areas for further research. Given the complex nature of crises facing South Sudan, our findings call for a comprehensive policy approach to address not only the urgent humanitarian crisis but also to help restore agricultural production systems as well as support communities to cope, recover, and build their vii resilience to shocks and crises. This is in line with the Partnership for Recovery and Resilience (PfRR) integrated programme framework for resilience which comprises four pillars: i) re-establish access to basic services, ii) rebuild trust in people and institutions, iii) restore productive capacities, and iv) nurture effective partnerships.

Year published

2022

Authors

Ulimwengu, John M.; Thomas, Timothy S.; Marivoet, Wim; Benin, Samuel

Citation

Ulimwengu, John M.; Thomas, Timothy S.; Marivoet, Wim; and Benin, Samuel. 2022. Determinants of resilience for food and nutrition security in South Sudan. IFPRI Discussion Paper 2117. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.135877.

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Africa; Northern Africa; Value Chains; Nutrition Security; Households; Modelling; Climate Models; Nutrition; Food Security; Market Connectivity; Resilience; Climate Change

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Links

https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.135877 Source record

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Addressing transboundary cooperation in the Eastern Nile through the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Insights from an E-survey and key informant interviews

2017Berga, Helen; Ringler, Claudia; Bryan, Elizabeth; ElDidi, Hagar; Elnasikh, Sara

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Addressing transboundary cooperation in the Eastern Nile through the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Insights from an E-survey and key informant interviews

The Nile is the lifeblood of northeastern Africa, and its roles for and interdependency with the national economies it traverses and binds together grow as it moves from source to sea. With rapid economic development—population growth, irrigation development, rural electrification, and overall economic growth—pressures on the Nile’s water resources are growing to unprecedented levels. These drivers of change have already contributed to stark changes in the hydropolitical regime, and new forms of cooperation and cross-sectoral collaboration are needed, particularly in the Eastern Nile Basin countries of Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan, and South Sudan. As direct sharing of water resources is hampered by unilateral developments, the need has increased for broader, cross-sectoral collaboration around the water, energy, and food sectors. This study is conducted to assess and understand the challenges of and opportunities for cooperation across the water-energy-food nexus nationally in Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan, as well as regionally across the Eastern Nile. To gather data, the paper uses an e-survey supplemented with key informant interviews geared toward national-level water, energy, and agriculture stakeholders, chiefly government staff and researchers. Findings from the survey tools suggest that most respondents strongly agree that collaboration across the water, energy, and agriculture sectors is essential to improve resource management in the region. At the same time, there is ample scope for improvement in collaboration across the water, energy, and food sectors nationally. Ministries of water, energy, and food were identified as the key nexus actors at national levels; these would also need to be engaged in regional cross-sectoral collaboration. Respondents also identified a wide range of desirable cross-sectoral actions and investments—both national and regional—chiefly, joint planning and operation of multipurpose infrastructure; investment in enhanced irrigation efficiency; joint rehabilitation of upstream catchments to reduce sedimentation and degradation; and investment in alternative renewable energy projects, such as wind and solar energy.

Year published

2017

Authors

Berga, Helen; Ringler, Claudia; Bryan, Elizabeth; ElDidi, Hagar; Elnasikh, Sara

Citation

Berga, Helen; Ringler, Claudia; Bryan, Elizabeth; ElDidi, Hagar; Elnasikh, Sara. 2017. Addressing transboundary cooperation in the Eastern Nile through the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Insights from an E-survey and key informant interviews. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1655. Washington, DC https://hdl.handle.net/10568/146245

Country/Region

Egypt; Sudan; Ethiopia

Keywords

Northern Africa; Eastern Africa; Africa; Middle East; Sub-saharan Africa; Foods; Nile River; Surveys; Stakeholders; Water; Resilience; Energy; Cooperation

Language

English

Source

Source record

Project

Water, Land and Ecosystems

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Enhancing food security in South Sudan: The role of public food stocks and cereal imports

2015Dorosh, Paul A.; Rashid, Shahidur; Childs, Abigail; van Asselt, Joanna

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Enhancing food security in South Sudan: The role of public food stocks and cereal imports

South Sudan faces serious problems of food insecurity due to low per capita levels of domestic food production, periodic droughts, widespread poverty, political unrest, and since late 2013, renewed armed conflict. Agricultural productivity is low, and the country is highly dependent on private-sector imports of cereals (maize, sorghum, wheat, and rice) from Uganda to supply domestic markets. National household survey data indicate substantial diversity in consumption of cereals across households, and our econometric estimates suggest highly price- and income-inelastic demand for the two major cereals, sorghum and maize. Drawing on a review of international experience and the constraints facing South Sudan, we conclude that a national food security reserve (NFSR) system with a small national food security stock is feasible for South Sudan. Cereal stocks would be kept mainly for targeted safety nets and emergency distribution, and market interventions would be limited in scope, in keeping with a long-run goal of market development. Nonetheless, even with a functioning NFSR, promotion of private-sector domestic and import trade will remain crucial for ensuring adequate supplies of grain and food security

Year published

2015

Authors

Dorosh, Paul A.; Rashid, Shahidur; Childs, Abigail; van Asselt, Joanna

Citation

Dorosh, Paul A.; Rashid, Shahidur; Childs, Abigail; and Van Asselt, Joanna. 2015. Enhancing food security in South Sudan: The role of public food stocks and cereal imports. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1482. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/151421

Keywords

South Sudan; Eastern Africa; Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Sorghum; Imports; Food Policies; Food Stocks; Cereals; Rice; Demand; Maize; Agriculture; Trade; Productivity; Food Security; Resilience; Armed Conflicts

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Project

Policies, Institutions, and Markets

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Local warming and violent conflict in North and South Sudan

2013Maystadt, Jean-François; You, Liangzhi; Calderone, Margherita Bernal

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Local warming and violent conflict in North and South Sudan

Weather shocks and natural disasters, it has been argued, represent a major threat to national and international security. Our paper contributes to the emerging micro-level strand of the literature on the link between local variations in weather shocks and conflict by focusing on a pixel-level analysis for North and South Sudan at different geographical and time scales between 1997 and 2009. Temperature anomalies are found to strongly affect the risk of conflict. In the future the risk is expected to magnify in a range of 21 to 30 percent under a median scenario, taking into account uncertainties in both the climate projection and the estimate of the response of violence to temperature variations. Extreme temperature shocks are found to strongly affect the likelihood of violence as well, but the predictive power is hindered by substantial uncertainty. Our paper also sheds light on the vulnerability of areas with particular biophysical characteristics or with vulnerable populations.

Year published

2013

Authors

Maystadt, Jean-François; You, Liangzhi; Calderone, Margherita Bernal

Citation

Calderone, Margherita; Maystadt, Jean-Francois and You, Liangzhi. 2013. Local Warming and Violent Conflict in North and South Sudan. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1276 Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/153553

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Africa; Northern Africa; Weather; Shock; Vulnerability; Resilience; Armed Conflicts; Disasters; Climate Change

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Project

Policies, Institutions, and Markets

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Managing conflict over natural resources in greater Kordofan, Sudan: Some recurrent patterns and governance implications

2007Siddig, El Fatih Ali; El-Harizi, Khalid; Prato, Bettina

Details

Managing conflict over natural resources in greater Kordofan, Sudan: Some recurrent patterns and governance implications

Despite the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which brought to an end 20 years of civil war in the Sudan, this country continues to experience smaller-scale conflicts, particularly around access to and control of natural resources. Some observers lay the blame for this on ethnopolitical or tribal divisions. However, this paper argues that there are a variety of factors at play behind these conflicts, notably the combination of resource scarcity with a crisis of governance that is particularly evident in transitional areas like the Kordofan region. To gain a sense of the range of conflicts around natural resources in Kordofan, the authors reviewed existing records such as government archives; conducted interviews with politicians, federal and state government officials, farmers, pastoralists, and Native Administration leaders; and investigated findings in the field. Interviews also served to examine people’s knowledge about government natural resource policies and their perceptions of the roles played by government and the Native Administration in conflict management and resolution. The paper presents 20 cases of stalemate competition or open conflict over natural resources in Kordofan. The cases center on (1) conflicts between farmers and herders over stock routes, gum arabic forests, gardens, watering points, and the use of dars (tribal homelands); (2) conflicts between herders and small farmers and government agents or large private investors over mechanized farming areas, oil infrastructure, and other private investments. In their analysis of natural resource governance in Sudan, the authors find that natural resources policies have often been weak foundations for sustainable resource use, and in some cases they have actually contributed to conflict. In addition, the volatile path of government devolution efforts concerning natural resources has undermined governance of these resources. While conflicts between farmers and herders were managed relatively successful in the past through customary land tenure systems, this is less and less the case today as a result of larger herds, reduced water and pasture, instability and prejudices stirred up by the war, and a proliferation of arms among herders. In addition, patron–client politics, weak natural resource management and development policies, and top-down government institutions have encouraged ethnic polarization and social divisions. The authors find that measures are needed to reform the process of natural resource management, making land use planning more comprehensive, building on local livelihood systems, and increasing public spending on infrastructure. In addition, sustainable property rights on farmland and on mobile resources should be redefined, and informal conflict management mechanisms restored to the extent that this is possible.

Year published

2007

Authors

Siddig, El Fatih Ali; El-Harizi, Khalid; Prato, Bettina

Citation

Siddig, El Fatih Ali; El-Harizi, Khalid; Prato, Bettina. Managing conflict over natural resources in greater Kordofan, Sudan: Some recurrent patterns and governance implications. IFPRI Discussion Paper 711. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/160213

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Northern Africa; Conflict Management; Natural Resources Management; Small Farmers; Land Use; Livelihoods; Public Finance; Property Rights; Governance; Sustainability

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Measuring and accounting for community capabilities in Kordofan, Sudan

2007El-Harizi, Khalid; Klemick, Heather

Details

Measuring and accounting for community capabilities in Kordofan, Sudan

Parallel to the growing attention being devoted to the relationship between empowerment and development, an increasing number of tools are being developed to measure empowerment and determine the link between these two phenomena. This paper details the methodological processes used to construct, test and possibly refine one such instrument, the Community Capability Index, an innovative tool to measure community capabilities in the domain of natural resource governance. Empirical reference is made to research conducted in 85 villages in North and South Kordofan, Sudan. Following this, the paper presents findings from analyses of the determinants of community capabilities, including geographic, economic, and institutional variables. The results suggest that in Kordofan a number of factors influence capabilities. Possessing a village market, proximity to the nearest town, and access to credit are economic variables that have a significant and highly positive effect on community capabilities. Regarding the environment, capabilities are found to be greater where there is more rainfall, but access to groundwater from lower-quality aquifers and cracking clay soils have negative impacts on capabilities. War shocks, as might be expected, have a negative and significant effect. Particularly interesting is the generally weak correlation found between capabilities and wealth, along with strong correlations between institutional and social dimensions of community capabilities and participation in donor-funded projects. This combination suggests that development interventions must take into account the non-identity of poverty reduction and empowerment processes, at least when the targeted agents are communities rather than individuals or households. The findings reveal areas for further investigation into the relationship between the determinants and dimensions of capabilities, and the potential significance of the relationship for some dimensions suggests context-specific interventions to strengthen the relevant capabilities.

Year published

2007

Authors

El-Harizi, Khalid; Klemick, Heather

Citation

El-Harizi, Khalid; Klemick, Heather. Measuring and accounting for community capabilities in Kordofan, Sudan. IFPRI Discussion Paper 730. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/160241

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Northern Africa; Empowerment; Social Capital; Gender; Women; Natural Resources Management; Economics; Conflict Management; Aquifers; Water; Ifad

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Record type

Working Paper

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Working Paper

Understanding policy volatility in Sudan

2007El-Harizi, Khalid; Zaki, El Sayed; Prato, Bettina; Shields, Ghada

Details

Understanding policy volatility in Sudan

In this paper we present the findings of a qualitative investigation into some dimensions and implications of policy volatility in the realms of natural resource (NR) governance and devolution in contemporary Sudan, with particular reference to Greater Kordofan. Our goal is to map out some aspects of the interplay between volatility, disempowerment processes affecting both state agents and the rural population, and certain problems of governance that are characteristic but not unique to Sudan. In particular, we argue that volatility is a dimension of poor governance worthy of investigation in its own right, as it is a primary ingredient of what we may call a “self-disempowering state,” where adaptive learning in policy processes is impeded and successful devolution faces particularly complex obstacles. The policy domain that we consider for analysis includes laws, regulations and policies enacted under the label of “Decentralization, Land Allocation and Land Use,” as well as large development projects supporting the decentralization or devolution of NR management to local communities in the region.

Year published

2007

Authors

El-Harizi, Khalid; Zaki, El Sayed; Prato, Bettina; Shields, Ghada

Citation

El-Harizi, Khalid; Zaki, El Sayed; Prato, Bettina; Shields, Ghada. Understanding policy volatility in Sudan. IFPRI Discussion Paper 721. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://hdl.handle.net/10568/160222

Country/Region

Sudan

Keywords

Africa; Eastern Africa; Sub-saharan Africa; Northern Africa; Devolution; Communities; Governance; Rural Population; Decentralization; Natural Resources Management; Land Allocation; Land Use; Ifad

Language

English

Access/Licence

Open Access

Source

Source record

Record type

Working Paper

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